Millionaire Mentors Needed Volunteer your Help
Our international viewers include CEOs, professional athletes and doctors, lawyers, investors, entrepreneurs, professional models and cheerleaders, engineers, and movie directors and average joes, just to name a few.
Although many of our website views have high income levels, you don't have to be rich or famous to donate on our site members.
We know time is important to you. That's why our enrollment form is simple and easy to use.
Millionairehelp.org offers people hope. This site provides a way for financially unfortunate people to connect with those who may donate. Some may compare it to a lottery or the classifieds but we like to think of it as a site dedicated to helping people. Before Millionairehelp.com, the financially unfortunate had no way of asking for help. Now, through Millionairehelp.org, requests are broadcasted for donators to view. The creators of Millionairehelp.org send the best of luck to all of those who need help and a sincere thanks to those who have donated to these worthy causes. Cyber begging sites have been featured in The NY Times, ABC News, CNN, CBS Evening News, WGN News, Canadian Broadcasting Channel, and many others.
Millionairehelp.org is looking forward to several new and upcoming changes. We are excited about the success of Millionairehelp.org and look forward to continued growth.
We need help saving our home.
Mother and son need financial help. Mother needs to pay back the Bank of Mom and Dad. Any help is much appreciated.
Single mom, victim of real estate crash, in desparate need of help.
Looking to receive $250,000 to pay off debt. If anyone can help please email me. Will doodd jobs of any kind to pay it off.
Need Financial Help Fast! PLEASE READ!
Assist Post Foreclosure Sales. Help people in court to win their homes back.
South Dakota Business Owner is looking for an honest millionaire investor. Serious Inquires only. Donate to my business TODAY! You won't regret it ~ I promise!
Male graduate student seeking funds for surgical procedure.
Please help...in desperate need!
Please Take a Moment and Read My Story... Please Help Us....
I am looking for a millionaire to help. Serious Inquires only. Family of 5 needs help desperately!
HIV/AIDS Survivor In ground breaking clinical trial needs funds to catch up on bills and to fund a new buisness venture. Please help now, so that I may return a profit and donate back to children orphaned by the epidemic.
I need money to start my business and to help my mom pay her medical bills.
Need money for a home to live.
I am looking for financial help.
College student seeks an angel to help fund studies.
Rising Star Chef wants to help her family attain financial freedom by enrolling younger sister in culinary school, to make something of her life.
Single mom- 2 great kids- educational donations needed.
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I need your help now to help my daughter and son.
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Well Does this Really Work???
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My financial planning went awry.
DESPERATELY IN NEED OF A NEW START
Losing everything in 2 weeks - couple desperately need help!
Help the Less Fortunate I am involved with a homeless shelter that feeds the less fortunate. Homeless Shelter looking for individuals and organizations to help raise funds to expand programs and to Feed, clothe, and rehabilitate less fortunate individuals.
We ask if you can please help us no matter how big or small to please give whatever you can.
Autistic Child Needs Help For Therapy Expenses.
Brother can you spare a dime? Or one to ten dollars?
Father of 2 beautiful girls needs money for custody battle.
I'm on disability income can you help me see?? I'm in need of Lasik Eye Surgery.
Can some one please help my family and I we're seriously in debt.
MOMMIE & I ARE SCARED,DESPERATE,AND,ALONE!!!!!!!
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New Widow Being Buried Alive!
I need new BOOBS!
First Annual 2007 "Ride Without Limits" bikeathon for cerebral palsy!
CAR ACCIDENT CHANGED MY LIFE FOREVER..
I am very Tired of the Injustice Created by the inefficiencies of our Child Support System in the USA.
PLEASE HELP! ME BUILD A FEEDING STATION FOR STARVING AIDS ORPHANS IN MALAWI.
Father who just wants to make his children and family proud of him.
OPRAH IS NOT ALWAYS RIGHT...I HAVE WORKED VERY HARD MY ENTIRE LIFE AND I HAVE NOT EXPERIENCED HER SUCCESS. SOMETIMES IT TAKES MORE THAN HARD WORK JUST TO MAKE ENDS MEET
Need help saving my house and my husband. Please help me.
Please help keep American Pride and Tradition with helping to teach kids old school values on horse and cattle ranches and the value of growing up with pride and american traditions.
Unemployed father with infant needs help. Last year my wife had car accident when she was pregnant.
I am a 56 year old widow and I need some financial assistance if at all possible. My husband passed away suddenly and I am going to lose my home.
We are self employed and I am asking for a loan not a handout. We are very hard workers but we are having a rough time right now and need someone to give us a loan asap.
I am in need of financial help to repair my 88 year old home. a house this old needs a lot of work ($40,000).
Dear Sir: I am a 55 year old lady. I work at a local hospital as a unit clerk. Here is my story.
I WANT TO START A BUSINESS TO KEEP TEENS OF THE STREETS
I am not looking for a hand handput though. i am looking for anyone who is willing to help me. i am 25 years old and i have a lot of business opts that i am attempting to get into
Hi,my name is April Craft and I'm asking for alittle help.My fiance' and I are trying to buy the 10 acre farm that we are presently renting.
Please some one help us and we really need some Christmas money now with it being only about , well less than 4 weeks its about 23 days and we dont have any money or a tree or decorations i would love to have a 4 ft white tree and stuff, gifts , some new clothes and a ham dinner but things never work out for us but thanks and god bless you
Hi,My name is Charlotte. I am looking for a philanthropist who is willing to help me financially.
I am a young frustrated mother, I am beginning to feel that there's no hope for me and my 4 year oid son in this world.
If you are in a position to help, I would appreciate it. I live paycheck to paycheck. Now I find Myself in a situation where I need an Attorney. The prices are outrageous. They will not help unless they have their money upfront.
Looking for a millionaire who doesn't mind helping a family to have a new start in life.Need financial assistance in order to move into a new home. Serious only inquire.
I Am 54 yr. young disabled woman, hit bottom! Need assistance of a loan/donation to pay debts.
I need help for elderly parents my parents are both ill and live in an old mobil home which needs a lot of repairs
My son tells me i have to move and throwing me out of the house i helped buy.I cannot do anything about it because and my name is not on the Deed and i cannot buy them out because id o not have any money. All my savings was was put into the house. I am retirement age and still work but having difficulty saving up money for a place to live...i never expected this to happen especially at this stage of my life
I am in Great Need of Financial Assistance I am a Catholic school teacher who has taught for more than thirty years I have always worked hard to keep my bills paid on time but I lost that battle this summer.
I Am 54 yr. young disabled woman, hit bottom! Need assistance of a loan/donation to pay debts.
13 year old with 4th stage Leukemia needs help
Disabled-retired firefighter/paramedic needs financial assist, awash in debt!
My insurance business failed. I am interviewing for a full time job. I need money to keep a roof over my families head until I get on my feet again.
My Genuine Desperate Plea for Financial Help I hope that whoever reads this can follow it and I have documentation to back up what I have to say.
I am looking for a millionaire investor. Serious Inquires only. Donate to my business now!
Hand Down? Hand Up?
I want have a baby and need money for IVF ( in vitro infertilization)
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Infant twins, a 3 year old and a 15 year
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I need a New Benz
= HELP!!! BLONDIE NEEDS 12,000 COLLEGE DOLLARS FOR CAREER OF HER DREAMS!!!
Also See: What is cyber-begging:
Setting up a web page to solicit donations.
What is cyber-begging:
Setting up a web page to solicit donations.
Where do you find cyber-beggars?
On the Internet Web
Where do you find cyber-beggars?
On the Internet Web
donate to cyber-beggars
DonateMoney2me
What is Internet begging?
Someone sets up a web page to solicit donations.
What is Internet pan-handling?
Someone sets up a web page to solicit donations.
What is Internet panhandling?
See above.
What is cyber panhandling?
See above.
cyber begging website
What do we call the people who donate money to needy people?
Altruistic
Benevolent
Big-Hearted
Contributors
Donators
Generous
Humane
Kind
Humanitarian
Wonderful
Life Savers
Fin
Also See: What is cyber-begging:
Setting up a web page to solicit donations.
What is cyber-begging:
Setting up a web page to solicit donations.
Where do you find cyber-beggars?
On the Internet Web
Where do you find cyber-beggars?
On the Internet Web
donate to cyber-beggars
DonateMoney2me
What is Internet begging?
Someone sets up a web page to solicit donations.
What is Internet pan-handling?
Someone sets up a web page to solicit donations.
What is Internet panhandling?
See above.
What is cyber panhandling?
See above.
cyber begging website
What do we call the people who donate money to needy people?
Altruistic
Benevolent
Big-Hearted
Contributors
Donators
Generous
Humane
Kind
Humanitarian
Wonderful
Life Savers
Do you need money for a worthy reason?
Ask for it.
"Ask and ye shall receive".
If you are a person in need, why not ask for some help.
If you are in a bad situation, you have probably tried to borrow money and for one reason or another you are unable to acquire the money you need.
What do you do? Is there any way to get the cash I need?
At Millionairehelp.org we are promoting a new way to get the money you need.
What we do: We supply you with your very own "high performance" web page where you can ask for donations.
Millions of people use the Internet and there are many of them looking for the needy and helping them out. Donations ranging from a penny to $500 and more!
Helping to move you towards your goals you've wanted to reach.
$20,000 in 20 weeks!
A success story.
A woman named was reported on CBS news that she raised over $20,000 in just 20 weeks! CBS News Story
It has been been called begging, cyber begging, cyber panhandling, people asking for money online, their own web page begging for money. Is is begging? You do what you have to do to take care of your family and this is honorable.
You can tell your story - plead your case.
There are folks out there going through what you are experiencing! They can really relate to your story and want to help you. After your own web page is up and running, they can help you.
People asking for the donations have had some astounding results. People begging online or cyber panhandling raise thousand of dollars.
She received donations from .05 cents to $500.00 during that period.
Another woman named Princes Natalie claims to have raised $1473.05!
That is not a loan, it's donations, legal ethical donations
You could be an individual or an organization, it does not matter.
Say whatever you like on your web-page, tell your story, your story, however you want to tell it. For legal reasons we do not allow photos at this time.
Why would someone send me donations?
Answer: Someone out there, in fact there are many people who have faced similar circumstances as you or who can relate to your story in one way or another. This is what drives these wonderful people to donate their money to people like you.
In just 20 weeks, followers of the woman profiled in the CBS story, watched as she knocked down more than $20,000 in debt, most came from donations ranging from a penny to $500.
How did she get in debt?
She ran her credit cards up to the maximum. People from all over donated money so she could pay her credit cards off!
That's right, she did not have children who were hungry, her home was not being foreclosed, she did not have a horrible illness with hospital bills to pay.....she just had high credit card bills!
Amazingly, folks donated thousands to her cause!
If you are wondering if we get many folks to our website:
According to Reuters News Wire, many experts believe there are 550,000,000,000 web sites world-wide.
Millionairehelp.org
Look: Do you share something in common, a special concern or
other experience similar to one of our members?
Search our website using the Google Search Engine
You might be more willing to donate
if you could relate to a member's particular problems.
Now you can search our web site using the google search engine.
Simply enter a search term like:
diabetes or cancer or unemployed
or any term you might associate with into the search box below.
Web http://millionairehelp.org
Members, increase your donations, revise your statement
Notice: We ask that everyone follow the Millionairehelp.org "Pledge of Responsibility". We do not get involved other than to offer the web page and post the content submitted. Although we sometimes edit materials submitted, we cannot be held responsible for content. Millionairehelp.org and it's affiliates cannot and does not guarantee that anyone asking for donations is legitimate, there is no verifying, we make no claim of any identity and will also never release the email addresses or names of individuals who post pages and we are not privy to the information about the donors so we have no information about who gives donations. But we feel that people will adhere to the "Pledge of Responsibility".
Also see Agreement - Terms of Service.
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Why would someone send me donations?
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There are plenty of charity web sites, and millions of wonderful, generous people donate millions of dollars to them.
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Also See: What is cyber-begging
What is cyber-begging
Where do you find cyber-beggars?
Where do you find cyber-beggars?
donate to cyber-beggars
What is Internet begging?
What is Internet pan-handling?
What is Internet panhandling?
What is cyber panhandling?
I want to beg online.
Where can I beg online?
Where do people beg online?
How do I beg online?
Where can I beg for money on the Internet?
Where can I beg for money online?
The answer of course is Millionairehelp.org
d us through the search engines under these terms and many others
Where can I beg for money? At http://www.millioniarehelp.org
Where can I get money online Places where people cyberbeg.
Places where people cyber-beg Athttp://www.millioniarehelp.orgWeb sites with cyber-begging At http://www.millioniarehelp.org
Web sites with cyberbegging At
Also See: What is cyber-begging
What is cyber-begging
Where do you find cyber-beggars?
Where do you find cyber-beggars?
donate to cyber-beggars
What is Internet begging?
What is Internet pan-handling?
What is Internet panhandling?
What is cyber panhandling?
I want to beg online.
Where can I beg online?
Where do people beg online?
How do I beg online?
Where can I beg for money on the Internet?
Where can I beg for money online?
Distance education, or distance learning, is a field of education that focuses on the pedagogy and andragogy, technology, and instructional systems design that aim to deliver education to students who are not physically "on site". Rather than attending courses in person, teachers and students may communicate at times of their own choosing by exchanging printed or electronic media, or through technology that allows them to communicate in real time and through other chatting ways. Distance education courses that require a physical on-site presence for any reason including the taking of examinations is considered to be a hybrid or blended course or program.
Distance education dates back to at least as early as 1728, when "an advertisement in the Boston Gazette...[named] 'Caleb Phillips, Teacher of the new method of Short Hand" was seeking students for lessons to be sent weekly.[1] Modern distance education has been practiced at least since Isaac Pitman taught shorthand in Great Britain via correspondence in the 1840s.[2] The development of the postal service in the 19th century lead to the growth of Commercial correspondence colleges with nation-wide reach.
The University of London was the first university to offer distance learning degrees, establishing its External Programme in 1858.[3] Another pioneering institution was the University of South Africa, which has been offering Correspondence Education courses since 1946. The largest distance education university in the United Kingdom is the Open University founded 1969. In Germany the FernUniversität in Hagen was founded 1974. There are now many similar institutions around the world, often with the name Open University (in English or in the local language), and these are listed below.
Charles Wedemeyer of the University of Wisconsin at Madison is considered the father of modern distance education in America. From 1964-1968 the Carnegie Foundation funded Wedemeyer's Articulated Instructional Media Project (AIM) which brought in a variety of communications technologies aimed at providing learning to an off-campus population. According to Moore's recounting, AIM impressed the British who imported these ideas and used them to create the first Open University, now called United Kingdom Open University (UKOU) to distinguish it from other open universities which have emerged. UKOU was established in the late 1960s and used television and radio as its primary delivery methodologies, thus placing it in the forefront of applying emerging technologies to learning. It is fair to say that all "open universities" use distance education technologies as delivery methodologies.[4]
There are many private and public, non-profit and for-profit institutions offering courses and degree programs through distance education. Levels of accreditation vary; some institutions offering distance education in the United States have received little outside oversight, and some may be fraudulent diploma mills. In many other jurisdictions, an institution may not use the term "University" without accreditation and authorisation, normally by the national government. Online education is rapidly increasing among mainstream universities in the United States, where online doctoral programs have even developed at prestigious research institutions. [5]
In the twentieth century, radio, television, and the Internet have all been used to further distance education. Computers and the Internet have made distance learning distribution easier and faster. [6]
In 2006 the Sloan Consortium reported that more than 96 percent of the largest colleges and universities in the United States offered online courses and that almost 3.2 million U.S. students were taking at least one online course during the fall 2005 term. [7]
[edit] Technologies Used in Delivery
The types of available technologies used in distance education are divided into two groups: synchronous and asynchronous. Synchronous technology is used in distance education lessons in which learning is occurring in different places but at the same time. Asynchronous technology is used in lessons in which learning is occurring in different places but also at different times.
[edit] Synchronous technologies
* telephone
* broadcast video
* internet chat (such as AIM)
* videoconferencing
* net meeting
[edit] Asynchronous technologies
* voice mail/fax
* videocassette
* audiocassette
* e-mail
* print materials[8]
[edit] Types of distance education courses
* Correspondence conducted through regular mail
* Internet conducted either synchronously or asynchronously
* Telecourse/Broadcast, in which content is delivered via radio or television
* CD-ROM, in which the student interacts with computer content stored on a CD-ROM
* PocketPC/Mobile Learning where the student accesses course content stored on a mobile device or through a wireless server
Distance Education has traversed four to five 'generations' of technology in its history. These are print, audio/video broadcasting, audio/video teleconferencing, computer aided instruction, e-learning/ online-learning, computer broadcasting/webcasting etc. Yet the radio remains a very viable form, especially in the developing nations, because of its reach. In India the FM Channel is very popular and is being used by universities, to broadcast educational programs of variety on areas such as teacher education, rural development, programs in agriculture for farmers, science education, creative writing, mass communication, in addition to traditional courses in liberal arts, science and business administration. The increasing popularity of mp3 players, PDAs and Smart Phone has provided an additional medium for the distribution of distance education content, and some professors now allow students to listen or even watch video of a course as a Podcast [9]. Some colleges have been working with the U.S. military to distribute entire course content on a PDA to deployed personnel. [10]
One of the newest technologies for delivery of distance education is the 3D virtual world of the online community Second Life. Institutions reported to have used Second Life in instruction include Bloomsburg University, Princeton University, Rice University, University of Derby (UK), Vassar College, and the Open University (UK)[11]. In at least one instance, an entire online course was conducted through Second Life [12]. In 2007 Second Life started to be used for foreign language instruction [13]. English (as a foreign language) has gained a presence through several schools, including the British Council[14], which has focused on the Teen Grid. Spain’s language and cultural institute “Instituto Cervantes” has an island on Second Life.
There is also an increased use of WebEx as an online learning platform and classroom for a diverse set of education providers such as Fox School of Business for Temple University, Grades Grow, Minnesota State Colleges and Universities, and Sachem[15][16][17][18]. Webex is a Cisco Web Meetings and Collaboration Solution. The platform has worked for educational institutions because of real time collaboration using an interactive whiteboard, chat, and VOIP technology that allows audio and video sharing. In distance learning situations, while replacing the classroom with features, institutions have also looked for security features which are inherently strong in a Cisco powered collaboration environment. The downside is that Webex is not a free platform like WiZiQ or Moodle, and fees are paid per 'host' of a classroom or a meeting.
[edit] Testing and evaluation
Distance education has had trouble since its conception with the testing of material. The delivery is fairly straightforward, which makes sure it is available to the student and he or she can read it at their leisure. The problem arises when the student is required to complete assignments and testing. Whether quizzes, tests, or examinations; Online courses have had difficulty controlling cheating because of the lack of teacher control. In a classroom situation a teacher can monitor students and visually uphold a level of integrity consistent with an institution's reputation. With distance education the student can be removed from supervision completely. Some schools address integrity issues concerning testing by requiring students to take examinations in a controlled setting.[19]
Assignments have adapted by becoming larger, longer, and more thorough so as to test for knowledge by forcing the student to research the subject and prove they have done the work. Quizzes are a popular form of testing knowledge and many courses go by the honor system regarding cheating. Even if the student is checking questions in the textbook or online, there may be an enforced time limit or the quiz may be worth so little in the overall mark that it becomes inconsequential. Exams and bigger tests may be harder to regulate.
Used in combination with invigilators, a pre-arranged supervisor trusted with overseeing big tests and examinations may be used to increase security. Many Midterms and Final examinations are held at a common location so that professors can supervise directly.When the Internet became a popular medium for distance education many websites were founded offering secure exam software and packages to help professors manage their students more effectively.
[edit] References
1. ^ Holmberg, B. (2005). The evolution, principles and practices of distance education. Bibliotheks-und Informationssystem der Universitat Oldenburg. p. 13.
2. ^ Moore, Michael G.; Greg Kearsley (2005). Distance Education: A Systems View, Second, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. ISBN 0-534-50688-7.
3. ^ "Key Facts", University of London External Programme Website [1]
4. ^ Moore, Michael G.; Greg Kearsley (2005). Distance Education: A Systems View, Second, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. ISBN 0-534-50688-7. , pages 33-36
5. ^ Hebert, D. G. (2007). “Five Challenges and Solutions in Online Music Teacher Education,” Research and Issues in Music Education, Vol. 5
6. ^ Gold, L & Maitland, C (1999). What's the difference? A review of contemporary research on the effectiveness of distance learning in higher education. [Electronic version.] Washington, DC: NEA.
7. ^ Making the Grade: Online Education in the United States, 2006, The Sloan Consortium (accessed February 28, 2008
8. ^ Lever-Duffy, Judy and Jean B. McDonald. Teaching and Learning with Technology. Pearson Education, Inc., 2008, 2005, 2003.
9. ^ iTunes U, Retrieved February 9, 2007
10. ^ Defense Activity For Non-Traditional Education Support, DANTES Retrieved February 27, 2007
11. ^ Parker, Quin. "A second look at school life", The Guardian, 2007-04-6. Retrieved on 2007-06-16.
12. ^ Education in a Virtual World, Harvard University Extension School, Retrieved February 9, 2007
13. ^ Dorveaux, Xavier. "Apprendre une langue dans un monde virtuel", Le Monde, 2007-07-15. Retrieved on 2007-07-15.
14. ^ http://www.britishcouncil.org
15. ^ Business School to Use WebEx to Connect Classrooms Around the World
16. ^ WebEx Education Platform
17. ^ Kentucky Department of Education
18. ^ Cisco Expands Collaboration Support
19. ^ What do you do in a course? The Open University |http://www.open.ac.uk/new/course-activities.shtml |Accessed on 2008-02-18
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A master's degree is a postgraduate academic degree awarded after the completion of an academic program of one to six years in duration.
In the recently standardized European system of higher education diplomas, it corresponds to a one to two year (60 to 120 ECTS credits) postgraduate program undertaken after at least three years of undergraduate studies. It provides higher qualification for employment or prepares for doctoral studies. In the USA and Canada, a master's degree entails a one- or two–year course in which students would normally enroll after completing a bachelor's degree.
However, in some European countries, a magister is a first degree and may be considered equivalent to a modern (standardized) master's degree (e.g., the German university Diplom/Magister, or the similar 5-year diploma awarded in several subjects in Greek, Spanish, Italian, and other universities and polytechnics). In the Francophone countries, a DEA is the postgraduate degree and considered equivalent to the master's degree (e.g, In France, the French-Speaking Switzerland and Belgium a DEA is 1-2 years degree taken after the Licence), after the application of Bologna process the DEA had been given a new name: MAS (Master of Advanced Studies).
The master of arts (magister artium), master of science (magister scientiæ) and Master of Science in Law degrees are the basic degree types in most subjects, and they may be course-based, research-based, or (more typically) a mixture of the two. A dissertation may or may not be required, depending on the program. There are also degrees of the same level, such as engineer's degrees, which have different names for historical reasons.
Admission to a master's program normally requires holding a bachelor's degree (in the United Kingdom & Canada an 'honours' bachelor degree), although relevant work experience may qualify a candidate. Progressing to a doctoral program sometimes requires that the candidate first earn a master's degree. In some fields or postgraduate programs, work on a doctorate begins immediately after the bachelor's degree, but the master's may be earned along the way, as a result of the successful completion of coursework and certain examinations. In some cases the student's bachelor's degree must be in the same subject as the intended master's degree, or in a closely allied discipline; in others, the subject of the bachelor's degree is unimportant.
There has recently been an increase in programs leading to these degrees in the United States; more than twice as many such degrees are now awarded as compared to the 1970s. [1] Some university programmes provide for a joint bachelor's and master's degree after four or five years.
In some languages, a master's degree is called a magister, which is Latin for master (teacher), and magister or a cognate can also be used for a person who has the degree. Some universities use the Latin degree names, and because of the flexibility of word order in Latin, artium magister (A.M.) or scientiæ magister (S.M.) may be used; Harvard University and the University of Chicago for instance, use A.M. and S.M. for their master's degrees and MIT uses S.M. for its master of science degrees. Master of Science often is abbreviated MS in the USA[2] and MSc or M.Sc. in Commonwealth nations and Europe.
A doctorate is an academic degree that indicates a high, if not the highest, level of academic achievement. A terminal degree in most countries, some Central and Eastern European countries place the doctorate second only to the habilitation.
The term doctorate comes from the Latin docere, meaning "to teach", shortened from the full Latin title licentia docendi, meaning "license to teach." This was translated from the equivalent Arabic term ijazat attadris, which was a distinction granted to certain Islamic scholars, thus qualifying them to teach.
The origins of the doctorate dates back to the ijazat attadris wa 'l-ifttd ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Madrasahs which taught Islamic law. It was equivalent to the Doctor of Laws qualification and was developed during the 9th century after the formation of the Madh'hab legal schools. To obtain a doctorate, a student "had to study in a guild school of law, usually four years for the basic undergraduate course" and at least ten years for a post-graduate course. The "doctorate was obtained after an oral examination to determine the originality of the candidate's theses," and to test the student's "ability to defend them against all objections, in disputations set up for the purpose" which were scholarly exercises practiced throughout the student's "career as a graduate student of law." After students completed their post-graduate education, they were awarded doctorates giving them the status of faqih (meaning "master of law"), mufti (meaning "professor of legal opinions") and mudarris (meaning "teacher"), which were later translated into Latin as magister, professor and doctor respectively.[1]
The concept of a doctorate was soon introduced into Medieval Europe as a license to teach at a university.[1] In this sense, doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild. The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Masters of Arts", seven years, was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree.
The usage and meaning of the doctorate has changed over time, and it has also been subject to regional variations. For instance, until the early 20th century few faculty members in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders. After that time the German practice of requiring prospective lecturers to have completed a "research doctorate" became widespread. Additionally, universities' shifts to "research oriented" education increased the importance of the doctorate. Today such a doctorate is generally a prerequisite for pursuing an academic career, although not everyone who receives a research doctorate becomes a member of a university. Many universities also award "honorary doctorates" to individuals who have been deemed worthy of special recognition, either for scholarly work or for other contributions to the university or to society.
Although the research doctorate is almost universally accepted as the standard qualification for an academic career, it is a relatively new invention. The older-style doctorates (now usually called "Higher Doctorates" in the United Kingdom) take much longer to complete, since candidates must show themselves to be leading experts in their subjects. These doctorates are now less common in some countries, and are often awarded honoris causa. The habilitation is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU and involves either a new long thesis (a second book) or a portfolio of research publications. The habilitation demonstrates independent and thorough research, experience in teaching and lecturing and, more recently, the ability to generate funding within the area of research. The "habilitation" is regarded as a senior post-doctoral qualification, many years after the research doctorate, and can be necessary for a Privatdozent (in Germany) or professor position.
A similar system traditionally holds in Russia. Already in the Russian Empire the academic degree doctor of science (doktor nauk) marked the highest academic degree which can be achieved by an examination. This system was generally adopted by the USSR/Russia and many post-Soviet countries.
[edit] Types of doctorate
Since the Middle Ages, there has been considerable evolution and proliferation in the number and types of doctorates awarded by universities throughout the world, and practices vary from one country to another. While a doctorate usually entitles one to be addressed as "doctor", usage of the title varies widely, depending on the type of doctorate earned and the doctor's occupation. See the main article for Doctor (title) for more information.
Broadly speaking, doctorates may be loosely classified into the following categories:
Research doctorates are awarded in recognition of both mastery of research methods (as evidenced in class grades and a comprehensive examination) and academic research that is ideally publishable in a peer-reviewed academic journal, but that will minimally be assessed by submission and defense of a thesis or dissertation.[2] The best-known degree of this type is that of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) awarded throughout the world; others include the U.S. degrees of Doctor of Engineering (DEng) and Doctor of Science (DSc or ScD), the UK Engineering Doctorate (EngD), and the German degree of Doctor rerum naturalium (Dr.rer.nat.).
The minimum time required to earn a doctorate varies by country, and can be a short as three years (excluding bachelor's and master's studies). However, some candidates can take anywhere from five to ten years to complete. The median number of years to completion of doctoral degrees for all fields in the US is seven years.[3] Students are discouraged from taking unnecessarily long to graduate by having their financial support (stipends, research funds, etc.) relinquished. Furthermore, doctoral applicants were previously required to have a master's degree, but many programs will now accept students straight out of undergraduate studies.[4][5]
[edit] Higher doctorates
In some countries, especially the United Kingdom, Ireland and some Scandinavian, Commonwealth nations or former USSR countries, there is a higher tier of research doctorates, awarded on the basis of a formally submitted portfolio of published research of a very high standard. Examples include the Doctor of Science (DSc/ScD) and Doctor of Letters (DLitt/LittD) degrees found in the UK, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries, and the Danish doctorate (doktorgrad; e.g. dr.theol., doctor theologiæ, Latin for Doctor of Theology).
The German habilitation postdoctoral qualification is sometimes regarded as belonging to this category, even though, strictly speaking, the habilitation is not an academic degree, but rather a professional license to teach at a German university.
Higher doctorates are often also awarded honoris causa when a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's achievements and contributions to a particular field.
Professional doctorates are awarded in certain fields where most holders of the degree are not engaged primarily in scholarly research, but rather in a profession, such as law, medicine, music or ministry. Examples include the U.S. degrees of Doctor of Medicine (MD), Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM) and Doctor of Jurisprudence (JD), the Dutch Professional Doctorate in Engineering (PDEng), and the Czech degrees of Doctor of Dental Medicine (MDDr.) and Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (MVDr.).
The term Professional Doctorate is also used to refer to research doctorates with a focus on applied research, or research as used for professional purposes. Among others, these include the degrees of Doctor of Education (EdD), Doctor of Applied Linguistics (DAppLing), Doctor of Practical Theology (DPT)[6] and Doctor of Business Administration (DBA).[7]
[edit] Honorary doctorates
Main article: Honorary degree
When a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's contributions to a particular field or philanthropic efforts, it may choose to grant a doctoral degree honoris causa (i.e., "for the sake of the honor"), the university waiving the usual formal requirements for bestowal of the degree.[8][9] Some universities (e.g., Cornell University[10], the University of Virginia[11]) do not award honorary degrees, feeling the bestowal unethical.
Argentina
Similar to other countries, in Argentina the doctorate (doctorado)[12] is the highest. The intention is that candidates produce true and original contributions in a specific field of knowledge within a frame of academic excellence.[13] The doctoral candidate's work should be presented in a dissertation or thesis prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director, and reviewed by a Doctoral Committee. This Committee should be composed of examiners external to the program, and at least one of them should also be external to the institution. The academic degree of Doctor is received after a successful defense of the candidate’s dissertation.[14] Currently, there are approximately 2,151 postgraduate careers in the country, of which 14% were doctoral degrees.[15] Doctoral programs in Argentina are overseen by the National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation[16], which is a decentralized agency in Argentina’s Ministry of Education, Science and Technology.[17]
[edit] Germany
A research doctorate usually takes three to five years to complete. In Germany, most doctorates are awarded with specific designations for the field of research instead of a general "PhD" for all fields. The degree is written in front of the first name for addresses (within texts, the abbreviation "Dr." is common) and accompanies the person's name (unlike in German-speaking Switzerland).
There are no first degree doctorates but medical students can obtain a "Dr. med." after one semester of mostly undergraduate research or data evaluation. The "Dr. med." is not equivalent to a PhD but to a Masters degree. Medical Students going into research can obtain a research doctorate in some subjects, such as molecular medicine or human biology.
Upon the completion of the habilitation paper (Habilitationsschrift) a senior doctorate (habil.) is awarded. This senior doctorate is known as the habilitation. It is not a degree, but an additional qualification. It authorizes the owner to teach at (German) universities ("facultas docendi"), plus qualifies the holder of the "habil." to teacher in a certain subject ("venia legendi"). This or an equivalent professional experience is - traditionally - the necessary prerequisite for a position of Privatdozent and Professor. Now, with the Bachelor/Master model and the Juniorprofessoren to be introduced, this has already changed partially.
[edit] Spain
Doctor Degrees are regulated by Royal Decree (R.D. 778/1998)[18], Decreto Real (in Spanish). They are granted by the University on behalf of the King, and its Diploma has the force of a public document. The Ministry of Science keeps a National Registry of Theses called TESEO [19]. According to the National Institute of Statistics (INE), less than 5% of M.Sc. degree holders are admitted to Ph.D. programs, and less than 10% of 1st year Ph.D. students are finally granted a Doctorate[20].
All doctoral programs are of research nature. A minimum of 5 years of study are required, divided into 2 stages:
1) A 3-year long period of studies, which concludes with a public dissertation presented to a panel of 3 Professors. If the projects receives approval from the university, he/she will receive a "Diploma de Estudios Avanzados" (part qualified doctor).
2) A 2-year (or longer) period of research. Extensions may be requested for up to 10 years. The student must write his thesis presenting a new discovery or original contribution to Science. If approved by his "thesis director", the study will be presented to a panel of 5 distinguished scholars. Any Doctor attending the public presentations is allowed to challenge the candidate with questions on his research. If approved, he will receive the doctorate. Four marks can be granted (Unsatisfactory, Pass, "Cum laude", and "Summa cum laude"). Those Doctors granted their degree "Summa Cum Laude" are allowed to apply for an "Extraordinary Award".
A Doctor Degree is required in order to apply to a teaching position at the University.
The social standing of Doctors in Spain is evidenced by the fact that only Doctors and Grandees/Dukes can take seat and cover their heads before the King[21]. All Doctorate Degree holders are reciprocally recognized as equivalent in Germany and Spain ("Bonn Agreement of November 14th 1994")[22].
[edit] United Kingdom
All doctorates (except for those awarded honoris causa) granted by British universities are research doctorates in the sense described above, in that their main (and in many cases only) component is the submission of a thesis or portfolio of original research, examined by an expert panel appointed by the university.
Even the relatively new 'vocational doctorates' such as the EngD, EdD, DSocSci and DClinPsych require the submission of a body of original research of a similar length to a PhD thesis. In the case of the EngD, however, this might be in the form of a portfolio of technical reports on different research projects undertaken by the candidate as opposed to a single, long monographical thesis. Another important difference is that traditional PhD programs are mostly academic-oriented and normally require full-time study at the university, whereas, in an EngD program, the candidate typically works full-time for an industrial sponsor on application-oriented topics of direct interest to the partner company and is jointly supervised by university faculty members and company employees.
The PhD itself is a comparatively recent introduction to the UK, dating from 1917. It was originally introduced in order to provide a similar level of graduate research training as was available in several other countries, notably Germany and the USA. Previously, the only doctorates available were the higher doctorates, awarded in recognition of an illustrious research career.
The universities of Oxford and Sussex denote the degree of Doctor of Philosophy with the postnominal initials DPhil. The University of York also did this for some years, switching to the more conventional PhD quite recently.
[edit] Higher doctorates in the United Kingdom
Higher doctorates are awarded in recognition of a substantial body of original research undertaken over the course of many years. Typically the candidate will submit a collection of work which has been previously published in a peer-refereed context. Most universities restrict candidacy to graduates or academic staff of several years' standing. The most common doctorates of this type are those in Divinity (DD), Medicine (MD or DM), Laws (LLD), Civil Law (DCL), Music (DMus or MusD), Letters (DLitt or LittD) and Science (DSc or ScD).
Of these, the DD historically ranked highest, theology being the senior faculty in the mediaeval universities. The degree of Doctor of Canon Law was next in the order of precedence, but (except for a brief revival during the reign of Mary Tudor) did not survive the Protestant reformation[23], a consequence of the fact that the teaching of canon law at Cambridge and Oxford was forbidden by Henry VIII, founder of the Church of England. The DMus was, historically, in an anomalous situation, since a candidate was not required to be a member of Convocation (that is, to be a Master of Arts). The DLitt and DSc are relatively recent innovations, dating from the latter part of the 19th century.
[edit] Honorary doctorates in the United Kingdom
Most British universities award degrees honoris causa in order to recognise individuals who have made a substantial contribution to a particular field. Usually an appropriate higher doctorate is used in these circumstances, depending on the achievements of the candidate. However, some universities, in order to differentiate between honorary and substantive doctorates, have introduced the degree of Doctor of the University (DUniv) for these purposes, and reserve the higher doctorates for formal academic research.
[edit] United States
[edit] Research doctorate in the United States
The most common research doctorate is the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.). This degree was first awarded in the U.S. at the 1861 Yale University commencement. The University of Pennsylvania followed shortly thereafter in 1870, while Harvard (1872) and Princeton (1879) also followed suit.[24]
The requirements for obtaining Ph.D.s and other research doctorates in the U.S. typically entail successful completion of pertinent classes, passing of a comprehensive examination, and defense of a dissertation.[25]
Other fields of study also have their own research doctorates, including the doctorate of theology and the doctor of juridical science, among many others.
[edit] Professional doctorates in the United States
In the United States, there are numerous degrees which incorporate the word "doctor" and are known as "professional doctorates." Such fields include audiology, chiropractic, dentistry, education, law, medicine, occupational therapy, optometry, osteopathic medicine, pharmacy, physical therapy, podiatry, practical theology, psychology, veterinary medicine, and many others that usually require such degress for licensure, including several in development such as that for medical physics. Generally, these degrees are considered "first professional degrees."
Professional doctorates were developed in the United States in the 19th century during a movement to improve the training of professionals by raising the requirements for entry and completion of the degree necessary to enter the profession.[26] These professional doctorates were more rigorous than their bachelor equivalents in the U.S. and replaced them. The first professional doctorate was the M.D. in 1807,[27] which was nearly sixty years before the first Ph.D. was awarded in the U.S. in 1861.[28] The Juris Doctor was subsequently established by Harvard University for the same reasons that the M.D. was established.[29]
[edit] Professional doctorates in Korea and Japan
As part of a reform plan adopted in 2004, South Korea is creating a system of American-style graduate law schools which will award a Juris Doctor (professional doctoral) degree. Only graduates of these law schools, scheduled to matriculate their first students in 2009, will be eligible to take the bar exam.[30] In Japan, a similar reform was started in 2004 and the degree of Juris Doctor is awarded to graduates of three year graduate studies in law.
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Also See: What is cyber-begging:
Setting up a web page to solicit donations.
What is cyber-begging:
Setting up a web page to solicit donations.
Where do you find cyber-beggars?
On the Internet Web
Where do you find cyber-beggars?
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donate to cyber-beggars
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What is Internet begging?
Someone sets up a web page to solicit donations.
What is Internet pan-handling?
Someone sets up a web page to solicit donations.
What is Internet panhandling?
See above.
What is cyber panhandling?
See above.
cyber begging website
What do we call the people who donate money to needy people?
Altruistic
Benevolent
Big-Hearted
Contributors
Donators
Generous
Humane
Kind
Humanitarian
Wonderful
Life Savers
Fin
Also See: What is cyber-begging:
Setting up a web page to solicit donations.
What is cyber-begging:
Setting up a web page to solicit donations.
Where do you find cyber-beggars?
On the Internet Web
Where do you find cyber-beggars?
On the Internet Web
donate to cyber-beggars
DonateMoney2me
What is Internet begging?
Someone sets up a web page to solicit donations.
What is Internet pan-handling?
Someone sets up a web page to solicit donations.
What is Internet panhandling?
See above.
What is cyber panhandling?
See above.
cyber begging website
What do we call the people who donate money to needy people?
Altruistic
Benevolent
Big-Hearted
Contributors
Donators
Generous
Humane
Kind
Humanitarian
Wonderful
Life Savers
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Distance education, or distance learning, is a field of education that focuses on the pedagogy and andragogy, technology, and instructional systems design that aim to deliver education to students who are not physically "on site". Rather than attending courses in person, teachers and students may communicate at times of their own choosing by exchanging printed or electronic media, or through technology that allows them to communicate in real time and through other chatting ways. Distance education courses that require a physical on-site presence for any reason including the taking of examinations is considered to be a hybrid or blended course or program.
Distance education dates back to at least as early as 1728, when "an advertisement in the Boston Gazette...[named] 'Caleb Phillips, Teacher of the new method of Short Hand" was seeking students for lessons to be sent weekly.[1] Modern distance education has been practiced at least since Isaac Pitman taught shorthand in Great Britain via correspondence in the 1840s.[2] The development of the postal service in the 19th century lead to the growth of Commercial correspondence colleges with nation-wide reach.
The University of London was the first university to offer distance learning degrees, establishing its External Programme in 1858.[3] Another pioneering institution was the University of South Africa, which has been offering Correspondence Education courses since 1946. The largest distance education university in the United Kingdom is the Open University founded 1969. In Germany the FernUniversität in Hagen was founded 1974. There are now many similar institutions around the world, often with the name Open University (in English or in the local language), and these are listed below.
Charles Wedemeyer of the University of Wisconsin at Madison is considered the father of modern distance education in America. From 1964-1968 the Carnegie Foundation funded Wedemeyer's Articulated Instructional Media Project (AIM) which brought in a variety of communications technologies aimed at providing learning to an off-campus population. According to Moore's recounting, AIM impressed the British who imported these ideas and used them to create the first Open University, now called United Kingdom Open University (UKOU) to distinguish it from other open universities which have emerged. UKOU was established in the late 1960s and used television and radio as its primary delivery methodologies, thus placing it in the forefront of applying emerging technologies to learning. It is fair to say that all "open universities" use distance education technologies as delivery methodologies.[4]
There are many private and public, non-profit and for-profit institutions offering courses and degree programs through distance education. Levels of accreditation vary; some institutions offering distance education in the United States have received little outside oversight, and some may be fraudulent diploma mills. In many other jurisdictions, an institution may not use the term "University" without accreditation and authorisation, normally by the national government. Online education is rapidly increasing among mainstream universities in the United States, where online doctoral programs have even developed at prestigious research institutions. [5]
In the twentieth century, radio, television, and the Internet have all been used to further distance education. Computers and the Internet have made distance learning distribution easier and faster. [6]
In 2006 the Sloan Consortium reported that more than 96 percent of the largest colleges and universities in the United States offered online courses and that almost 3.2 million U.S. students were taking at least one online course during the fall 2005 term. [7]
[edit] Technologies Used in Delivery
The types of available technologies used in distance education are divided into two groups: synchronous and asynchronous. Synchronous technology is used in distance education lessons in which learning is occurring in different places but at the same time. Asynchronous technology is used in lessons in which learning is occurring in different places but also at different times.
[edit] Synchronous technologies
* telephone
* broadcast video
* internet chat (such as AIM)
* videoconferencing
* net meeting
[edit] Asynchronous technologies
* voice mail/fax
* videocassette
* audiocassette
* e-mail
* print materials[8]
[edit] Types of distance education courses
* Correspondence conducted through regular mail
* Internet conducted either synchronously or asynchronously
* Telecourse/Broadcast, in which content is delivered via radio or television
* CD-ROM, in which the student interacts with computer content stored on a CD-ROM
* PocketPC/Mobile Learning where the student accesses course content stored on a mobile device or through a wireless server
Distance Education has traversed four to five 'generations' of technology in its history. These are print, audio/video broadcasting, audio/video teleconferencing, computer aided instruction, e-learning/ online-learning, computer broadcasting/webcasting etc. Yet the radio remains a very viable form, especially in the developing nations, because of its reach. In India the FM Channel is very popular and is being used by universities, to broadcast educational programs of variety on areas such as teacher education, rural development, programs in agriculture for farmers, science education, creative writing, mass communication, in addition to traditional courses in liberal arts, science and business administration. The increasing popularity of mp3 players, PDAs and Smart Phone has provided an additional medium for the distribution of distance education content, and some professors now allow students to listen or even watch video of a course as a Podcast [9]. Some colleges have been working with the U.S. military to distribute entire course content on a PDA to deployed personnel. [10]
One of the newest technologies for delivery of distance education is the 3D virtual world of the online community Second Life. Institutions reported to have used Second Life in instruction include Bloomsburg University, Princeton University, Rice University, University of Derby (UK), Vassar College, and the Open University (UK)[11]. In at least one instance, an entire online course was conducted through Second Life [12]. In 2007 Second Life started to be used for foreign language instruction [13]. English (as a foreign language) has gained a presence through several schools, including the British Council[14], which has focused on the Teen Grid. Spain’s language and cultural institute “Instituto Cervantes” has an island on Second Life.
There is also an increased use of WebEx as an online learning platform and classroom for a diverse set of education providers such as Fox School of Business for Temple University, Grades Grow, Minnesota State Colleges and Universities, and Sachem[15][16][17][18]. Webex is a Cisco Web Meetings and Collaboration Solution. The platform has worked for educational institutions because of real time collaboration using an interactive whiteboard, chat, and VOIP technology that allows audio and video sharing. In distance learning situations, while replacing the classroom with features, institutions have also looked for security features which are inherently strong in a Cisco powered collaboration environment. The downside is that Webex is not a free platform like WiZiQ or Moodle, and fees are paid per 'host' of a classroom or a meeting.
[edit] Testing and evaluation
Distance education has had trouble since its conception with the testing of material. The delivery is fairly straightforward, which makes sure it is available to the student and he or she can read it at their leisure. The problem arises when the student is required to complete assignments and testing. Whether quizzes, tests, or examinations; Online courses have had difficulty controlling cheating because of the lack of teacher control. In a classroom situation a teacher can monitor students and visually uphold a level of integrity consistent with an institution's reputation. With distance education the student can be removed from supervision completely. Some schools address integrity issues concerning testing by requiring students to take examinations in a controlled setting.[19]
Assignments have adapted by becoming larger, longer, and more thorough so as to test for knowledge by forcing the student to research the subject and prove they have done the work. Quizzes are a popular form of testing knowledge and many courses go by the honor system regarding cheating. Even if the student is checking questions in the textbook or online, there may be an enforced time limit or the quiz may be worth so little in the overall mark that it becomes inconsequential. Exams and bigger tests may be harder to regulate.
Used in combination with invigilators, a pre-arranged supervisor trusted with overseeing big tests and examinations may be used to increase security. Many Midterms and Final examinations are held at a common location so that professors can supervise directly.When the Internet became a popular medium for distance education many websites were founded offering secure exam software and packages to help professors manage their students more effectively.
[edit] References
1. ^ Holmberg, B. (2005). The evolution, principles and practices of distance education. Bibliotheks-und Informationssystem der Universitat Oldenburg. p. 13.
2. ^ Moore, Michael G.; Greg Kearsley (2005). Distance Education: A Systems View, Second, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. ISBN 0-534-50688-7.
3. ^ "Key Facts", University of London External Programme Website [1]
4. ^ Moore, Michael G.; Greg Kearsley (2005). Distance Education: A Systems View, Second, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. ISBN 0-534-50688-7. , pages 33-36
5. ^ Hebert, D. G. (2007). “Five Challenges and Solutions in Online Music Teacher Education,” Research and Issues in Music Education, Vol. 5
6. ^ Gold, L & Maitland, C (1999). What's the difference? A review of contemporary research on the effectiveness of distance learning in higher education. [Electronic version.] Washington, DC: NEA.
7. ^ Making the Grade: Online Education in the United States, 2006, The Sloan Consortium (accessed February 28, 2008
8. ^ Lever-Duffy, Judy and Jean B. McDonald. Teaching and Learning with Technology. Pearson Education, Inc., 2008, 2005, 2003.
9. ^ iTunes U, Retrieved February 9, 2007
10. ^ Defense Activity For Non-Traditional Education Support, DANTES Retrieved February 27, 2007
11. ^ Parker, Quin. "A second look at school life", The Guardian, 2007-04-6. Retrieved on 2007-06-16.
12. ^ Education in a Virtual World, Harvard University Extension School, Retrieved February 9, 2007
13. ^ Dorveaux, Xavier. "Apprendre une langue dans un monde virtuel", Le Monde, 2007-07-15. Retrieved on 2007-07-15.
14. ^ http://www.britishcouncil.org
15. ^ Business School to Use WebEx to Connect Classrooms Around the World
16. ^ WebEx Education Platform
17. ^ Kentucky Department of Education
18. ^ Cisco Expands Collaboration Support
19. ^ What do you do in a course? The Open University |http://www.open.ac.uk/new/course-activities.shtml |Accessed on 2008-02-18
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A master's degree is a postgraduate academic degree awarded after the completion of an academic program of one to six years in duration.
In the recently standardized European system of higher education diplomas, it corresponds to a one to two year (60 to 120 ECTS credits) postgraduate program undertaken after at least three years of undergraduate studies. It provides higher qualification for employment or prepares for doctoral studies. In the USA and Canada, a master's degree entails a one- or two–year course in which students would normally enroll after completing a bachelor's degree.
However, in some European countries, a magister is a first degree and may be considered equivalent to a modern (standardized) master's degree (e.g., the German university Diplom/Magister, or the similar 5-year diploma awarded in several subjects in Greek, Spanish, Italian, and other universities and polytechnics). In the Francophone countries, a DEA is the postgraduate degree and considered equivalent to the master's degree (e.g, In France, the French-Speaking Switzerland and Belgium a DEA is 1-2 years degree taken after the Licence), after the application of Bologna process the DEA had been given a new name: MAS (Master of Advanced Studies).
The master of arts (magister artium), master of science (magister scientiæ) and Master of Science in Law degrees are the basic degree types in most subjects, and they may be course-based, research-based, or (more typically) a mixture of the two. A dissertation may or may not be required, depending on the program. There are also degrees of the same level, such as engineer's degrees, which have different names for historical reasons.
Admission to a master's program normally requires holding a bachelor's degree (in the United Kingdom & Canada an 'honours' bachelor degree), although relevant work experience may qualify a candidate. Progressing to a doctoral program sometimes requires that the candidate first earn a master's degree. In some fields or postgraduate programs, work on a doctorate begins immediately after the bachelor's degree, but the master's may be earned along the way, as a result of the successful completion of coursework and certain examinations. In some cases the student's bachelor's degree must be in the same subject as the intended master's degree, or in a closely allied discipline; in others, the subject of the bachelor's degree is unimportant.
There has recently been an increase in programs leading to these degrees in the United States; more than twice as many such degrees are now awarded as compared to the 1970s. [1] Some university programmes provide for a joint bachelor's and master's degree after four or five years.
In some languages, a master's degree is called a magister, which is Latin for master (teacher), and magister or a cognate can also be used for a person who has the degree. Some universities use the Latin degree names, and because of the flexibility of word order in Latin, artium magister (A.M.) or scientiæ magister (S.M.) may be used; Harvard University and the University of Chicago for instance, use A.M. and S.M. for their master's degrees and MIT uses S.M. for its master of science degrees. Master of Science often is abbreviated MS in the USA[2] and MSc or M.Sc. in Commonwealth nations and Europe.
A doctorate is an academic degree that indicates a high, if not the highest, level of academic achievement. A terminal degree in most countries, some Central and Eastern European countries place the doctorate second only to the habilitation.
The term doctorate comes from the Latin docere, meaning "to teach", shortened from the full Latin title licentia docendi, meaning "license to teach." This was translated from the equivalent Arabic term ijazat attadris, which was a distinction granted to certain Islamic scholars, thus qualifying them to teach.
The origins of the doctorate dates back to the ijazat attadris wa 'l-ifttd ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Madrasahs which taught Islamic law. It was equivalent to the Doctor of Laws qualification and was developed during the 9th century after the formation of the Madh'hab legal schools. To obtain a doctorate, a student "had to study in a guild school of law, usually four years for the basic undergraduate course" and at least ten years for a post-graduate course. The "doctorate was obtained after an oral examination to determine the originality of the candidate's theses," and to test the student's "ability to defend them against all objections, in disputations set up for the purpose" which were scholarly exercises practiced throughout the student's "career as a graduate student of law." After students completed their post-graduate education, they were awarded doctorates giving them the status of faqih (meaning "master of law"), mufti (meaning "professor of legal opinions") and mudarris (meaning "teacher"), which were later translated into Latin as magister, professor and doctor respectively.[1]
The concept of a doctorate was soon introduced into Medieval Europe as a license to teach at a university.[1] In this sense, doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild. The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Masters of Arts", seven years, was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree.
The usage and meaning of the doctorate has changed over time, and it has also been subject to regional variations. For instance, until the early 20th century few faculty members in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders. After that time the German practice of requiring prospective lecturers to have completed a "research doctorate" became widespread. Additionally, universities' shifts to "research oriented" education increased the importance of the doctorate. Today such a doctorate is generally a prerequisite for pursuing an academic career, although not everyone who receives a research doctorate becomes a member of a university. Many universities also award "honorary doctorates" to individuals who have been deemed worthy of special recognition, either for scholarly work or for other contributions to the university or to society.
Although the research doctorate is almost universally accepted as the standard qualification for an academic career, it is a relatively new invention. The older-style doctorates (now usually called "Higher Doctorates" in the United Kingdom) take much longer to complete, since candidates must show themselves to be leading experts in their subjects. These doctorates are now less common in some countries, and are often awarded honoris causa. The habilitation is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU and involves either a new long thesis (a second book) or a portfolio of research publications. The habilitation demonstrates independent and thorough research, experience in teaching and lecturing and, more recently, the ability to generate funding within the area of research. The "habilitation" is regarded as a senior post-doctoral qualification, many years after the research doctorate, and can be necessary for a Privatdozent (in Germany) or professor position.
A similar system traditionally holds in Russia. Already in the Russian Empire the academic degree doctor of science (doktor nauk) marked the highest academic degree which can be achieved by an examination. This system was generally adopted by the USSR/Russia and many post-Soviet countries.
[edit] Types of doctorate
Since the Middle Ages, there has been considerable evolution and proliferation in the number and types of doctorates awarded by universities throughout the world, and practices vary from one country to another. While a doctorate usually entitles one to be addressed as "doctor", usage of the title varies widely, depending on the type of doctorate earned and the doctor's occupation. See the main article for Doctor (title) for more information.
Broadly speaking, doctorates may be loosely classified into the following categories:
Research doctorates are awarded in recognition of both mastery of research methods (as evidenced in class grades and a comprehensive examination) and academic research that is ideally publishable in a peer-reviewed academic journal, but that will minimally be assessed by submission and defense of a thesis or dissertation.[2] The best-known degree of this type is that of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) awarded throughout the world; others include the U.S. degrees of Doctor of Engineering (DEng) and Doctor of Science (DSc or ScD), the UK Engineering Doctorate (EngD), and the German degree of Doctor rerum naturalium (Dr.rer.nat.).
The minimum time required to earn a doctorate varies by country, and can be a short as three years (excluding bachelor's and master's studies). However, some candidates can take anywhere from five to ten years to complete. The median number of years to completion of doctoral degrees for all fields in the US is seven years.[3] Students are discouraged from taking unnecessarily long to graduate by having their financial support (stipends, research funds, etc.) relinquished. Furthermore, doctoral applicants were previously required to have a master's degree, but many programs will now accept students straight out of undergraduate studies.[4][5]
[edit] Higher doctorates
In some countries, especially the United Kingdom, Ireland and some Scandinavian, Commonwealth nations or former USSR countries, there is a higher tier of research doctorates, awarded on the basis of a formally submitted portfolio of published research of a very high standard. Examples include the Doctor of Science (DSc/ScD) and Doctor of Letters (DLitt/LittD) degrees found in the UK, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries, and the Danish doctorate (doktorgrad; e.g. dr.theol., doctor theologiæ, Latin for Doctor of Theology).
The German habilitation postdoctoral qualification is sometimes regarded as belonging to this category, even though, strictly speaking, the habilitation is not an academic degree, but rather a professional license to teach at a German university.
Higher doctorates are often also awarded honoris causa when a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's achievements and contributions to a particular field.
Professional doctorates are awarded in certain fields where most holders of the degree are not engaged primarily in scholarly research, but rather in a profession, such as law, medicine, music or ministry. Examples include the U.S. degrees of Doctor of Medicine (MD), Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM) and Doctor of Jurisprudence (JD), the Dutch Professional Doctorate in Engineering (PDEng), and the Czech degrees of Doctor of Dental Medicine (MDDr.) and Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (MVDr.).
The term Professional Doctorate is also used to refer to research doctorates with a focus on applied research, or research as used for professional purposes. Among others, these include the degrees of Doctor of Education (EdD), Doctor of Applied Linguistics (DAppLing), Doctor of Practical Theology (DPT)[6] and Doctor of Business Administration (DBA).[7]
[edit] Honorary doctorates
Main article: Honorary degree
When a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's contributions to a particular field or philanthropic efforts, it may choose to grant a doctoral degree honoris causa (i.e., "for the sake of the honor"), the university waiving the usual formal requirements for bestowal of the degree.[8][9] Some universities (e.g., Cornell University[10], the University of Virginia[11]) do not award honorary degrees, feeling the bestowal unethical.
Argentina
Similar to other countries, in Argentina the doctorate (doctorado)[12] is the highest. The intention is that candidates produce true and original contributions in a specific field of knowledge within a frame of academic excellence.[13] The doctoral candidate's work should be presented in a dissertation or thesis prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director, and reviewed by a Doctoral Committee. This Committee should be composed of examiners external to the program, and at least one of them should also be external to the institution. The academic degree of Doctor is received after a successful defense of the candidate’s dissertation.[14] Currently, there are approximately 2,151 postgraduate careers in the country, of which 14% were doctoral degrees.[15] Doctoral programs in Argentina are overseen by the National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation[16], which is a decentralized agency in Argentina’s Ministry of Education, Science and Technology.[17]
[edit] Germany
A research doctorate usually takes three to five years to complete. In Germany, most doctorates are awarded with specific designations for the field of research instead of a general "PhD" for all fields. The degree is written in front of the first name for addresses (within texts, the abbreviation "Dr." is common) and accompanies the person's name (unlike in German-speaking Switzerland).
There are no first degree doctorates but medical students can obtain a "Dr. med." after one semester of mostly undergraduate research or data evaluation. The "Dr. med." is not equivalent to a PhD but to a Masters degree. Medical Students going into research can obtain a research doctorate in some subjects, such as molecular medicine or human biology.
Upon the completion of the habilitation paper (Habilitationsschrift) a senior doctorate (habil.) is awarded. This senior doctorate is known as the habilitation. It is not a degree, but an additional qualification. It authorizes the owner to teach at (German) universities ("facultas docendi"), plus qualifies the holder of the "habil." to teacher in a certain subject ("venia legendi"). This or an equivalent professional experience is - traditionally - the necessary prerequisite for a position of Privatdozent and Professor. Now, with the Bachelor/Master model and the Juniorprofessoren to be introduced, this has already changed partially.
[edit] Spain
Doctor Degrees are regulated by Royal Decree (R.D. 778/1998)[18], Decreto Real (in Spanish). They are granted by the University on behalf of the King, and its Diploma has the force of a public document. The Ministry of Science keeps a National Registry of Theses called TESEO [19]. According to the National Institute of Statistics (INE), less than 5% of M.Sc. degree holders are admitted to Ph.D. programs, and less than 10% of 1st year Ph.D. students are finally granted a Doctorate[20].
All doctoral programs are of research nature. A minimum of 5 years of study are required, divided into 2 stages:
1) A 3-year long period of studies, which concludes with a public dissertation presented to a panel of 3 Professors. If the projects receives approval from the university, he/she will receive a "Diploma de Estudios Avanzados" (part qualified doctor).
2) A 2-year (or longer) period of research. Extensions may be requested for up to 10 years. The student must write his thesis presenting a new discovery or original contribution to Science. If approved by his "thesis director", the study will be presented to a panel of 5 distinguished scholars. Any Doctor attending the public presentations is allowed to challenge the candidate with questions on his research. If approved, he will receive the doctorate. Four marks can be granted (Unsatisfactory, Pass, "Cum laude", and "Summa cum laude"). Those Doctors granted their degree "Summa Cum Laude" are allowed to apply for an "Extraordinary Award".
A Doctor Degree is required in order to apply to a teaching position at the University.
The social standing of Doctors in Spain is evidenced by the fact that only Doctors and Grandees/Dukes can take seat and cover their heads before the King[21]. All Doctorate Degree holders are reciprocally recognized as equivalent in Germany and Spain ("Bonn Agreement of November 14th 1994")[22].
[edit] United Kingdom
All doctorates (except for those awarded honoris causa) granted by British universities are research doctorates in the sense described above, in that their main (and in many cases only) component is the submission of a thesis or portfolio of original research, examined by an expert panel appointed by the university.
Even the relatively new 'vocational doctorates' such as the EngD, EdD, DSocSci and DClinPsych require the submission of a body of original research of a similar length to a PhD thesis. In the case of the EngD, however, this might be in the form of a portfolio of technical reports on different research projects undertaken by the candidate as opposed to a single, long monographical thesis. Another important difference is that traditional PhD programs are mostly academic-oriented and normally require full-time study at the university, whereas, in an EngD program, the candidate typically works full-time for an industrial sponsor on application-oriented topics of direct interest to the partner company and is jointly supervised by university faculty members and company employees.
The PhD itself is a comparatively recent introduction to the UK, dating from 1917. It was originally introduced in order to provide a similar level of graduate research training as was available in several other countries, notably Germany and the USA. Previously, the only doctorates available were the higher doctorates, awarded in recognition of an illustrious research career.
The universities of Oxford and Sussex denote the degree of Doctor of Philosophy with the postnominal initials DPhil. The University of York also did this for some years, switching to the more conventional PhD quite recently.
[edit] Higher doctorates in the United Kingdom
Higher doctorates are awarded in recognition of a substantial body of original research undertaken over the course of many years. Typically the candidate will submit a collection of work which has been previously published in a peer-refereed context. Most universities restrict candidacy to graduates or academic staff of several years' standing. The most common doctorates of this type are those in Divinity (DD), Medicine (MD or DM), Laws (LLD), Civil Law (DCL), Music (DMus or MusD), Letters (DLitt or LittD) and Science (DSc or ScD).
Of these, the DD historically ranked highest, theology being the senior faculty in the mediaeval universities. The degree of Doctor of Canon Law was next in the order of precedence, but (except for a brief revival during the reign of Mary Tudor) did not survive the Protestant reformation[23], a consequence of the fact that the teaching of canon law at Cambridge and Oxford was forbidden by Henry VIII, founder of the Church of England. The DMus was, historically, in an anomalous situation, since a candidate was not required to be a member of Convocation (that is, to be a Master of Arts). The DLitt and DSc are relatively recent innovations, dating from the latter part of the 19th century.
[edit] Honorary doctorates in the United Kingdom
Most British universities award degrees honoris causa in order to recognise individuals who have made a substantial contribution to a particular field. Usually an appropriate higher doctorate is used in these circumstances, depending on the achievements of the candidate. However, some universities, in order to differentiate between honorary and substantive doctorates, have introduced the degree of Doctor of the University (DUniv) for these purposes, and reserve the higher doctorates for formal academic research.
[edit] United States
[edit] Research doctorate in the United States
The most common research doctorate is the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.). This degree was first awarded in the U.S. at the 1861 Yale University commencement. The University of Pennsylvania followed shortly thereafter in 1870, while Harvard (1872) and Princeton (1879) also followed suit.[24]
The requirements for obtaining Ph.D.s and other research doctorates in the U.S. typically entail successful completion of pertinent classes, passing of a comprehensive examination, and defense of a dissertation.[25]
Other fields of study also have their own research doctorates, including the doctorate of theology and the doctor of juridical science, among many others.
[edit] Professional doctorates in the United States
In the United States, there are numerous degrees which incorporate the word "doctor" and are known as "professional doctorates." Such fields include audiology, chiropractic, dentistry, education, law, medicine, occupational therapy, optometry, osteopathic medicine, pharmacy, physical therapy, podiatry, practical theology, psychology, veterinary medicine, and many others that usually require such degress for licensure, including several in development such as that for medical physics. Generally, these degrees are considered "first professional degrees."
Professional doctorates were developed in the United States in the 19th century during a movement to improve the training of professionals by raising the requirements for entry and completion of the degree necessary to enter the profession.[26] These professional doctorates were more rigorous than their bachelor equivalents in the U.S. and replaced them. The first professional doctorate was the M.D. in 1807,[27] which was nearly sixty years before the first Ph.D. was awarded in the U.S. in 1861.[28] The Juris Doctor was subsequently established by Harvard University for the same reasons that the M.D. was established.[29]
[edit] Professional doctorates in Korea and Japan
As part of a reform plan adopted in 2004, South Korea is creating a system of American-style graduate law schools which will award a Juris Doctor (professional doctoral) degree. Only graduates of these law schools, scheduled to matriculate their first students in 2009, will be eligible to take the bar exam.[30] In Japan, a similar reform was started in 2004 and the degree of Juris Doctor is awarded to graduates of three year graduate studies in law.
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Also See: What is cyber-begging:
Setting up a web page to solicit donations.
What is cyber-begging:
Setting up a web page to solicit donations.
Where do you find cyber-beggars?
On the Internet Web
Where do you find cyber-beggars?
On the Internet Web
donate to cyber-beggars
DonateMoney2me
What is Internet begging?
Someone sets up a web page to solicit donations.
What is Internet pan-handling?
Someone sets up a web page to solicit donations.
What is Internet panhandling?
See above.
What is cyber panhandling?
See above.
cyber begging website
What do we call the people who donate money to needy people?
Altruistic
Benevolent
Big-Hearted
Contributors
Donators
Generous
Humane
Kind
Humanitarian
Wonderful
Life Savers
Fin
Also See: What is cyber-begging:
Setting up a web page to solicit donations.
What is cyber-begging:
Setting up a web page to solicit donations.
Where do you find cyber-beggars?
On the Internet Web
Where do you find cyber-beggars?
On the Internet Web
donate to cyber-beggars
DonateMoney2me
What is